Digital resources in the Social Sciences and Humanities OpenEdition Our platforms OpenEdition Books OpenEdition Journals Hypotheses Calenda Libraries OpenEdition Freemium Follow us

Meat consumption and sustainability: the case of Japan

Author: Barbara Holthus

Putting sustainability research into action

Since October 2022, the German Institute for Japanese Studies Tokyo (DIJ) has been focusing on the study of sustainability in Japan. Researchers examine issues of diversity and inclusion, the green transformation of the economy, as well as the issue of resilience of rural communities or during times of disasters. As of May 2025, we have decided to put our research into action – through setting an example for how to live more sustainably by turning the institute vegetarian. This means that in all public events for which the DIJ provides any form of food catering, such as the DIJ Forum, but also workshops and symposia, the only food options will be either vegan or vegetarian. It is a small, yet symbolically important step. But why did we believe this to be an important step for the institute to take? And what does meat consumption have to do with sustainability?

Climate change and GHG

As The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024 by the UN states, progress on the realization of the SDGs has either “ground to a halt or been reversed across multiple fronts”1. It points to how important it is to address the “triple planetary crisis of climate change, air pollution and biodiversity loss”. The report goes on to write: “The time for words has passed. The political declaration of the SDG Summit must be translated into actions. It is still possible to create a better, more sustainable and more inclusive world for all by 2030. But the clock is running out. We must act now, and act boldly”2.

Climate change is driven by human activity and accelerating at an unprecedented speed. “As greenhouse gas emissions increase, more heat is trapped in the atmosphere, leading to global temperatures rising. This process is commonly referred to as global warming or climate change”3. Thus, cutting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions should be a top priority, yet they are not cut to levels that would have a significant effect on slowing climate change. As a matter of fact, Bhatti4 argue that GHG emissions will continue to increase globally, based on the policies currently in place. Japan is no exception.

Japan’s greenhouse gas emissions in fiscal 2023, which ended in March last year, declined 4.0% from the previous year to a record low of 1.071 billion tons in carbon dioxide equivalent, the Environment Ministry announced last month. Although the figure was down 23.3% from fiscal 2013, that’s still a way off the government’s target of cutting emissions by 60% by 2035 compared to 2013 levels5.

Of all GHG emissions, food production accounts for one quarter (26%) (see Figure 1 below6). Of these 26%, the largest share is that of livestock and fisheries (31%), plus adding emissions for the crop production for animal feed and the land use for livestock, we are at a whopping 53%. Put into simpler terms: more than half of all food production related emissions are related to livestock production.

Figure 1: Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production; source: Ritchie. 20197.

Before we delve more into the environmental impact of the livestock industry, beyond the rise in GHG emissions, lets look at the development of the global meat production and consumption.

Increase in global meat production

Statistics show a significant rise in overall meat production globally over the last decades.

Table 1: Production of meat (1000 tons); source: FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2022. Table 228.

While in 2021, 357 million tons of meat were produced globally, statistics for the year 2022 identify a continuing increase with a total of 361 million tons of meat9.

Meat production as seen in Table 1 is usually expressed in weight (tons) and not in the count of the individual animals raised and killed for human consumption. By measuring the industry purely in weight contributes to comprehending livestock production solely as an industry, while hiding the acknowledgement of individual animal lives that are the basis for the meat production. One of the exceptions is “Our World in Data”10 which lists the actual animal count of domesticated animals (livestock animals) as follows:

  • 21.41 billion chickens
  • 1.47 billion cattle
  • 1.2 billion sheep
  • 1.01 billion goats
  • 985.67 million pigs.

In their longitudinal data provided, we can see that a sheer explosion in the number of chickens occurred between 1950 and 1961. In the year 1950, there was actually no data yet available for poultry. The largest number that year were sheep with almost 779 million, followed by cattle with about 771 million animals. In 1961, the number of chickens then was 3.91 billion, while there were 994 million sheep, 942 million cattle, and 406 million pigs.

The increase of chicken over the decades until today remains extraordinary. In the year 2000, chicken made up 25% of the main meat items (see Figure 2), while 21 years later, their percentage rose to 34% and is now on par with meat from pigs. On the other hand, the shares of pork and beef have slightly declined over the same timeframe. The share of other meats, such as from sheep, goats, horses, etc. has remained stable at 12%.

Figure 2: World production of main meat items; source: FAO. 202211.

This sheer explosion in livestock animals has actually led to the fact that by today, a staggering 94% of non-human mammal biomass on this planet is livestock, and 71% of bird biomass is poultry livestock12. At the same time, the existence of wild animals is shrinking and many species are on the verge of extinction13. So the equilibrium between the diverse inhabitants of this planet has gotten greatly skewed.

We have also seen a significant shift in the leading meat-producing countries particularly in the last three decades. While in the 1960s up to the start of the 1990s, the United States was the main producer of meat, China has overtaken the US as top producer since then. By the 2020s, China produces about double the amount of meat (in tons) than the next top producer, the United States. Brazil also has steadily increased its meat production over the years and now is the world’s third largest producer (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Meat production 1961 to 2023; source: FAO. 202514.

Germany and Japan have seen comparatively steady production numbers over time. In recent years, however, Germany has seen a slight decline, while Japan has seen a small yet continuous increase (see Table 2).

Table 2: Production of meat (1000 tons); source: FAO. 2022. Table 2215.

Despite the increase, Japan only has a self-sufficiency rate for meat of 51%16, making the country highly dependent on imports to meet its demand. So with about half of all consumed meat having to be imported into Japan, Japan relies on countries like Australia, USA, Canada, and New Zealand as its main importers17. Despite its low meat self-sufficiency rate, the Japanese government is nonetheless keen on exporting its own products, such as Wagyu beef, advocating it for example in a colorful English-language 46-page PDF booklet on their website, with explanations on the different cuts of the beef, on recipes, and more18.

Table 2 above also sheds light on which different types of meats are popular in different countries. In Japan, poultry is the most popular, while in Germany, pork is the most popular meat. Furthermore, in Germany, both chicken and cattle rank on equal footing in popularity. In Japan, pigs are the second most popular, with cattle ranking third place.

Global meat consumption patterns

What are the reasons for meat production numbers having risen so drastically in the last two decades? Is it solely due to ongoing global population growth? As Figure 4 shows, the global population has now surpassed 8 billion people. It is predicted that this upward trend will end by the turn of the century – a long timeframe when it comes to the health of the planet however.

Figure 4: Population development, 1950 to 2023; source: Ritchie et al 202319. Data: UN World Population Prospects 2024.

It is however not the sheer number of people on this planet that is the main driver of meat consumption. Meat consumption is globally very unevenly distributed, and “first world” countries consume manyfold that of poorer countries. Meat is a lucrative business and even governments support their country’s meat industry in numerous ways. We rather see in the following figures that the culprit is the increase in per capita consumption of meat that really has been driving this explosion of meat production. The earliest reliable data stems from 1961. As we see in Figure 5, Japan had an overall annual consumption of 56 kg, with 49 kg of that coming from fish and seafood, and only seven kg from poultry, beef, pork, etc. This made Japan stand out in comparison to the other countries in regards to its consumption patterns. For the latest figures from 2022, the fish and seafood consumption in Japan has decreased by annually 4 kg to 45 kg. But the real change is in the significant increase in the consumption of other meats. In 1961, the overall largest meat consumers were the US, followed by Europe. Sixty years later, in 2022, the US remains the top per-capita consumer, rather closely followed by China and Japan. Thus, the scale of meat consumption (and production) is not a reflection of a population increase in first-world countries. Otherwise it would be inexplicable how a country like Japan with its overall population decline since 2011, continues to have rising per-capita meat consumption figures. Instead we see both an overproduction as well as overconsumption of meat for rich, industrialized countries per person. At the same time, however, in countries with continuing increasing population numbers, meat consumption remains comparatively low, as is the case for the continent of Africa as well as India, which is now the most populous country in the world.

Figure 5: Per capita meat consumption in 1961. vs. 2022; source: FAO. 2024. Data: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (2024).

Table 3 presents the meat consumption data in more detail over time.

Table 3: Per capita consumption of meat longitudinally (in kg); source: FAO. 202420. Data: Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (2024).

We see that in Western Europe the consumption of meat has peaked and is now on the decline since its high in 1990 – the same goes for Germany where the annual meat consumption is declining since 1990 but was still 10 kg more in 2022 (84 kg) than in 1961 (74 kg). In comparison, the consumption in China increased immensely (from only 7.7 kg in 1961 to annually 112 kg in 2022), and Japan has about doubled its annual intake (from 56 kg in 1961 to 105 kg in 2022). Nomura21 have calculated that the average dietary intake of red meat in Japan by now exceeds the recommended limits by 640%. The difference in consumption trends between Germany and Japan is also visible in the per capita egg consumption over the same time frame, meaning a moderate increase in Germany and a significant increase in Japan.

Table 4: Per capita yearly egg supply, 1961 to 2022; source: Ritchie et al 202322. Data: FAO.

Vegetarians and vegans

The question is who in Japan (and Germany) is driving the changes in meat consumption patterns? Global survey data suggests that 5% of the world population eat a vegetarian diet, and an additional 3% are vegan23. In 2023 in Germany, a representative survey found that one tenth of the population (12%) identifies as vegetarian or vegan24, thus a significantly higher percentage than globally. Of these 12%, 9% are vegetarian and 3% are vegan. Eating patterns are found to be highly gendered, with women and younger people more likely to be vegetarian. Overall, in Germany the largest group of those not eating meat are women under the age of 30. The Ipsos 2018 survey conducted in 28 countries supports this finding that women are significantly more likely to be vegetarian than men25.

In Japan it is particularly individuals in their 40s that are the largest red meat consumers26. Reliable statistics on the percentage of people identifying as vegetarians or vegans for Japan are wanting. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries writes of “approximately 4% vegetarians or vegans” (The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Japan 2022), the Japan Times cites an unspecified 2021 government survey that identified 2.2% of Japanese as being vegan (while not mentioning vegetarians)27. Last but not least, the website Kooeru cites a 2023 survey on vegetarians, finding that about 2% of the Japanese population identified themselves as vegetarian28. Despite the dearth of good statistical data, the gap between the two countries Germany and Japan in regards to plant-based foodways is obvious.

Sustainable consumption, health, and animal welfare

Livestock production negatively impacts the environment beyond the above-mentioned greenhouse gas emissions. Further negative impacts are those of biodiversity loss29 even argues that 78% of terrestrial biodiversity loss in Europe is attributable to the livestock industry), water depletion, as well as the increased risk for zoonotic diseases 30 31 32 33. Carey et al. conclude the following in their review on the environmental sustainability of plant-based dietary patterns: “Overall, there was an agreement across the studies regarding the impact of plant-based dietary patterns on GHGE, land used, and biodiversity loss despite varied plant-based diets assessed”34. Poore and Nemecek equally argue for the environmental benefits of plant-based diets:

Today, and probably into the future, dietary change can deliver environmental benefits on a scale not achievable by producers. Moving from current diets to a diet that excludes animal products has transformative potential, reducing food’s land use by 3.1 (2.8 to 3.3) billion ha (a 76% reduction), including a 19% reduction in arable land; food’s GHG emissions by 6.6 (5.5 to 7.4) billion metric tons of CO2eq (a 49% reduction); acidification by 50% (45 to 54%); eutrophication by 49% (37 to 56%); and scarcity-weighted freshwater withdrawals by 19% (−5 to 32%) for a 2010 reference year35.

Ritchie seconds these findings, ending her analysis in the following way. “If we want to reduce the emissions from our food, there is massive scope for both consumers and producers. […] As consumers, the biggest difference we can make is to eat more plant-based sources of protein such as tofu, nuts, peas, and beans. This is the case regardless of where you are in the world”36.

Thus, in this regard, Germany seems to have developed a greater awareness of the positive environmental impact of plant-based diets than Japan. For Japan to transition into the same direction, both policy and educational interventions would be important elements for awareness raising within the broader population.

Aiming to aid in a more sustainable planet and sustainable foodways is however just one of the reasons people choose a plant-based (vegetarian or vegan) diet. The other two main reasons, as the German survey identified, are health (e.g. the danger of zoonotic diseases or avoiding the negative impact of meat consumption on heart disease or longevity), as well as concerns about animal welfare (e.g. the situation of animals in the food industry)37.

Overall the discussion on foodways is multifaceted and encompasses cultural norms, health implications, and environmental concerns. Yet research has undeniably shown that the environmental impact of meat production is negative and current production patterns are unsustainable, while plant-based diets on the side of the consumers can play a significant role in improving sustainability in foodways. That is possible on an individual basis (I for example became a vegetarian at the age of 18). Yet an institution has a much bigger impact of setting an example. As the DIJ focuses on sustainability research since the year 2022, we made this small foodways shift in our institute – and hope for a ripple effect spreading through our audience and a small educational contribution for more sustainable food consumption. Thus, we have taken up the call by the UN38, as mentioned in the beginning of this text, that we must act now, and act boldly – and that is what we do here with a meat-free DIJ.

Barbara Holthus is the deputy director of the German Institute for Japanese Studies Tokyo. She is a sociologist (PhDs from the University of Trier, Germany, and the University of Hawaii at Manoa). Her current research is on human – animal relationships in contemporary Japan, and in particular the role of pets in Japanese society. Follow her research here.

References

  1. United Nations. 2024. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024. New York: UN. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/. S. 3. ↩︎
  2. United Nations. 2024. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024. New York: UN. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/, S. 3 ↩︎
  3. Bhatti, Uzair Aslam, et al. 2024. “Global production patterns: Understanding the relationship between greenhousse gas emissions, agriculture greening and climate variability”. Environmental Research, 245: 1-13, S. 5. ↩︎
  4. Bhatti, Uzair Aslam, et al. 2024. “Global production patterns: Understanding the relationship between greenhousse gas emissions, agriculture greening and climate variability”. Environmental Research, 245: 1-13. ↩︎
  5. Japan Times. 2025. “Take That” May 27, 2025. ↩︎
  6. Ritchie, Hannah. 2019. “Food production is responsible for one-quarter of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions”. https://ourworldindata.org/food-ghg-emissions. ↩︎
  7. Ritchie, Hannah. 2019. “Food production is responsible for one-quarter of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions”. https://ourworldindata.org/food-ghg-emissions. ↩︎
  8. FAO. 2022. “Production: Crops and livestock products”. In: FAOSTAT. Rome. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/28cfd24e-81a9-4ebc-b2b5-4095fe5b1dab/content/images/pdf/figure_26.pdf ↩︎
  9. FAO. 2024. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). “FAO Statistical Yearbook 2024 reveals critical insights on the sustainability of global agriculture, food security, and the importance of agrifood systems in employment”, https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/fao-statistical-yearbook-2024-reveals-critical-insights-on-the-sustainability-of-agriculture-food-security-and-the-importance-of-agrifood-in-employment/en  November 18. ↩︎
  10. Hyde & FAO. 2017. processed by Our World in Data. “Livestock counts”. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/livestock-counts?tab=discrete-bar&time=2014 ↩︎
  11. FAO. 2022. “Production: Crops and livestock products”. In: FAOSTAT. Rome. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/28cfd24e-81a9-4ebc-b2b5-4095fe5b1dab/content/images/pdf/figure_26.pdf ↩︎
  12. Ritchie, Hannah, Pablo Rosado, Max Roser. 2022. “Environmental Impacts of Food Production” https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food ↩︎
  13. World Wildlife Fund. 2022. Living Planet Report 2022 – Building a nature-positive society. Almond, R.E.A., M. Grooten, D. Juffe Bignoli, T. Petersen (eds). Gland, Switzerland: WWF.https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/embargo_13_10_2022_lpr_2022_full_report_single_page_1.pdf. ↩︎
  14. FAO. 2025. with major processing by “Our World in Data”. “Total meat production – UN FAO”, “Production: Crops and livestock products”, https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production ↩︎
  15. FAO. 2022. “Production: Crops and livestock products”. In: FAOSTAT. Rome. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/28cfd24e-81a9-4ebc-b2b5-4095fe5b1dab/content/images/pdf/figure_26.pdf ↩︎
  16. Lundin, Maths. 2020. “Japan Meat Market”. EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation. https://cdnw8.eu-japan.eu/sites/default/files/2020-06-japanese-meat-market-eubij.pdf, S. 8. ↩︎
  17. Lundin, Maths. 2020. “Japan Meat Market”. EU-Japan Centre for Industrial Cooperation. https://cdnw8.eu-japan.eu/sites/default/files/2020-06-japanese-meat-market-eubij.pdf, S. 15. ↩︎
  18. The Ministry for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Japan. n.d. Japanese Beef Products Guide Book. https://www.maff.go.jp/e/data/publish/attach/pdf/jameat-11.pdf. ↩︎
  19. Ritchie, Hannah et al. 2023a. “Population Growth”. ↩︎
  20. FAO. 2024. (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). “FAO Statistical Yearbook 2024 reveals critical insights on the sustainability of global agriculture, food security, and the importance of agrifood systems in employment”, https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/fao-statistical-yearbook-2024-reveals-critical-insights-on-the-sustainability-of-agriculture-food-security-and-the-importance-of-agrifood-in-employment/en  November 18. ↩︎
  21. Nomura, Marika, Miwa Yamaguchi, Yuji Inada, Nobuo Nishi. 2023. “Current dietary intake of the Japanese population in reference to the planetary health diet-preliminary assessment”. Frontiers in Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1116105 ↩︎
  22. Ritchie, Hannah et al 2023b. “Yearly per capita supply of eggs”. Data: FAO 2024. processed by Our World in Data. https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production ↩︎
  23. Ipsos MORI. 2018. “An Exploration into diets around the world”. Ipsos MORI Global Advisor Survey https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2018-09/an_exploration_into_diets_around_the_world.pdf, August. ↩︎
  24. Tagesschau.de. 2023. “Gut ein Zehntel isst vegetarisch oder vegan”. September 19. https://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/verbraucher/ernaehrung-vegetarisch-vegan-100.html. ↩︎
  25. Ipsos MORI. 2018. “An Exploration into diets around the world”. Ipsos MORI Global Advisor Survey https://www.ipsos.com/sites/default/files/ct/news/documents/2018-09/an_exploration_into_diets_around_the_world.pdf, August, S. 3. ↩︎
  26. Nomura, Marika, Miwa Yamaguchi, Yuji Inada, Nobuo Nishi. 2023. “Current dietary intake of the Japanese population in reference to the planetary health diet-preliminary assessment”. Frontiers in Nutrition. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2023.1116105 ↩︎
  27. Kitajima Mulkey, Sachi, Joseph Winters. 2025. “In meat- and fish-loving Japan, veganism is making a comeback”. Japan Times. January 29. ↩︎
  28. Kooeru. 2023. “Vegetarians in the U.S., Jpaan, and China: A Three Country Survey”. July 5. https://koeeru.com/en/2023/07/foodsurvey/ ↩︎
  29. Leip, Adrian, Gilles Billen, Josette Garnier, et al. “Impacts of European Livestock Production: Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land-Use, Water Eutrophication and Biodiversity.” Environmental Research Letters 10, no. 11 (2015): 115004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/11/115004. ↩︎
  30. Robinson, Eric, Jason Thomas, Paul Aveyard, and Suzanne Higgs. “What Everyone Else Is Eating: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effect of Informational Eating Norms on Eating Behavior.” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 114, no. 3 (2014): 414–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.11.009. ↩︎
  31. Steinfeld, Henning, and Pierre Gerber. “Livestock Production and the Global Environment: Consume Less or Produce Better?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, no. 43 (2010): 18237–38. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1012541107.
    ↩︎
  32. Kozicka, Marta, Petr Havlík, Hugo Valin, et al. “Feeding Climate and Biodiversity Goals with Novel Plant-Based Meat and Milk Alternatives.” Nature Communications 14, no. 1 (2023): 5316. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-40899-2. ↩︎
  33. Leip, Adrian, Gilles Billen, Josette Garnier, et al. “Impacts of European Livestock Production: Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Land-Use, Water Eutrophication and Biodiversity.” Environmental Research Letters 10, no. 11 (2015): 115004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/11/115004. ↩︎
  34. Carey, Cassandra et al. 2023. “The environmental sustainability of plant-based dietary patterns: A scoping review” The Journal of Nutrition, 153: 857-869, S. 857. ↩︎
  35. Poore, Joseph. and T. Nemecek. 2018. “Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers”. Science, 360: 987-992, S. 991. ↩︎
  36. Ritchie, Hannah. 2020. “Less meat is nearly always better than sustainable meat, to reduce your carbon footprint” OurWorldinData.org. https://ourworldindata.org/less-meat-or-sustainable-meat ↩︎
  37. Tagesschau.de. 2023. “Gut ein Zehntel isst vegetarisch oder vegan”. September 19. https://www.tagesschau.de/wirtschaft/verbraucher/ernaehrung-vegetarisch-vegan-100.html. ↩︎
  38. United Nations. 2024. The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024. New York: UN. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2024/. ↩︎

OpenEdition suggests that you cite this post as follows:
Barbara Holthus (September 1, 2025). Meat consumption and sustainability: the case of Japan. sustainability . Retrieved April 13, 2026 from https://sustainability.hypotheses.org/1037


You may also like...

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed.